Unit 2 research paper submission.
ABSTRACT
In this paper I examine the issue of restitution and discuss how European nations such as France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, The Netherlands and The United Kingdom have dealt with their colonial past. I will discuss the Sarr-Savoy report and the advances made since its publication as well as highlighting some of the obstacles that have stood in the way of reconciliation and the attitudes which continue to hinder progress today. I will also discuss how the Caribbean appear to be falling behind in their efforts to reclaim cultural artefacts from their former colonisers.
Before continuing it has to be noted that there were obstacles in the research process including limited access to academic resources; certain key resources were unavailable via the university library catalogue or the publisher’s website despite using the ‘access through my institution’ function. For example;
Keegan, W and Hoffman, C. (2016) The Caribbean Before Columbus.
(Available at: Oxford University Press).
There were also a number of resources hidden behind paywalls. For example;
Restitution of African cultural heritage: 'The postponement of the promised law is a shock to us' (Available at: Le Monde newspaper).
KEYWORDS
INTRO: THE LEGACY OF COLONIALISM
The colonial era, spanning roughly from the 15th to the mid-20th centuries, was characterised by the expansion of European powers into Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Oceania. This expansion often involved the extraction of valuable resources and cultural treasures, alongside the enforcement of foreign rule, religion and slavery. Artefacts and artworks, many of which were looted or acquired under dubious circumstances, were transported to museums and private collections in Europe and other colonising nations. Today, these items are frequently viewed as symbols of the wealth and power amassed through colonial exploitation.
To this day Africa and the Caribbean continue to be profoundly scarred by the social, economic, and political ramifications of exploitation. Countless atrocities have played out in some of the darkest chapters of both region’s histories, the extent of some only coming to light in recent years. In Africa, arbitrary borders drawn by colonial rulers fostered ethnic tensions and conflicts that persist post-independence. In the Caribbean, the legacy includes a complex interplay of race, identity, and economic dependency, rooted in the history of slavery and plantation economies. Both regions grapple with issues of governance, inequality, and cultural identity, as they navigate the challenges of rebuilding and redefining their futures in the wake of colonial domination. But perhaps the most difficult aspect to accept is the length of time it has taken those responsible to fully acknowledge their involvement.
Events of recent years’ have forced former colonial powers to confront the enduring impacts of their imperial pasts; increased pressure has left governments with no option but to address the contentious issue of restitution and reparation. Restitution, in this context, refers to the return of cultural artefacts, human remains, and other significant materials to their countries of origin, as well as addressing historical injustices and economic disparities that were exacerbated by colonial exploitation. Countries that were once colonised are increasingly demanding the return of their cultural heritage, which they argue was wrongfully taken. This demand is not solely about the physical return of objects but also about acknowledging and rectifying the historical injustices that facilitated their removal. For many post-colonial states, the return of these artefacts represents a reclaiming of cultural identity and historical continuity disrupted by colonial rule.
GATEKEEPERS OF CULTURE
The display of African and Caribbean art in British museums has long been a contentious issue. Critics argue that these institutions continue to perpetuate colonial legacies by holding onto stolen artefacts and presenting them in ways that distort their original meanings. The lack of proper context, coupled with the framing of these items as "exotic" or "primitive," serves to dehumanise the cultures from which they were taken and reinforces colonial attitudes of superiority and entitlement. Although not alone in this act the British museum appears to have set itself up as a gatekeeper of mankind’s culture; they currently house the largest collection of its kind in the world (around 8 million pieces) much of which has been pillaged from around the globe, the most famous examples being the Parthenon Marbles from Greece, the Rosetta Stone from Egypt and the Benin Bronzes from Nigeria. Perhaps not so well known are the many artefacts seized from the Caribbean including the wood carvings “found” in Carpenters Mountain. Most of the items are hidden from public view and stripped of their original meaning and context, further contributing to the erasure of the indigenous cultures that produced it.
THE RESTITUTION DEBATE
In mid-17th century Europe the Treaty of Westphalia resulted in records, documents being returned to their countries of origin, but this only applied to other European countries and not the colonies under their jurisdiction [Lowry, p262]. Fast-forward to present-day Europe and we witness increasing pressure on museums and collectors to address the historical injustices caused by the colonial era and the theft of cultural artefacts. Calls for repatriation have gained momentum, with African nations and diaspora communities demanding the return of stolen artworks and artefacts. The argument for repatriation is rooted in the idea that these items belong in the communities where they were created, where they hold the most cultural and historical significance. Returning these artefacts is seen as a way to rectify past wrongs and enable these once colonised nations to reclaim and restore their cultural heritage. Perhaps the most recent and high profile project designed with this in mind is that being executed by France.
In 2018 art historian Bénédicte Savoy and scholar Felwine Sarr drafted a report addressing the issue of African cultural artefacts on French soil. The report entitled “The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage. Toward a New Relational Ethics” came about following a 2017 tour by French President Emmanuel Macron to several African countries in which he addressed 800 students at the University of Ouagadougou in Dakar. In his speech Macron outlined his blueprint for the restitution of stolen cultural artefacts stating that “African heritage can’t just be in European private collections and museums. African heritage must be highlighted in Paris, but also in Dakar, in Lagos, in Cotonou”. He continued “In the next five years, I want the conditions to be met for the temporary or permanent restitution of African heritage to Africa.” [Rea] The report that followed identified three critical stages of execution;
(1) State of Play: a shortlist of high profile artefacts created. These items would receive priority shipping once the receiving nations are able to confirm they have the necessary infrastructure to receive them.
(2) Inventory: a wider list compiled and dialogue with the owner-nations established. (3) Transfer of works: arrangements put in place to return the remaining items with no official timescale identified other than Macron's suggested five years [Franceinfo Culture].
HURDLES & ATTITUDES
Unsurprisingly, the report gave birth to mixed response, in particular from art world heavyweights like Stéphane Martin, the then head of the Musée du Quai Branly- Jacques Chirac in Paris. In an interview with Le Monde newspaper in 2020 Martin declared that he would sooner see the items loaned to the respective countries in favour of returning them permanently [Greenberger]. Around 70,000 items (the bulk of France’s 90’000 strong loot) are housed in the MQBJC, billed as the “heir to 200 years of history, enrichment, study and conservation of public collections” [Musée du Quai Branly-Jacques Chirac]. The museum places its focus on Africa, the Near East, Asia, Oceania and the Americas spanning from the Neolithic period to the 20th century and sees over 1.3 million visitors per year [Musée du Quai Branly-Jacques Chirac]. Martin’s resistance could arguably be partly fuelled by a fear of the possible repercussions of Macron’s plan; the MQBJC’s reputation hangs on the objects it displays, the museum’s prestige and ability to draw such large visitor numbers, together with any funding available as a direct consequence of its popularity could be at risk. This same opinion is held by several museum heads and curators fearful of the possibility that they could be left with nothing left to display [Effiboley].
Some have thrown into doubt the ability of the receiving nations to protect and house their own heritage, a sentiment which is rebuked by countries such as Senegal, Benin and Nigeria, all of whom have invested considerably in the construction of new world-class museums [Vock]. Some countries have struggled however to meet their construction targets; Benin announced a plan to build an ambitious five new museums over a 5-year period (2016 to 2021) however none were ready for the planned repatriations [Effiboley]. On top of this, the pace of the overall project which would allow for the release of the treasures has been slow; French law requires each case for restitution to be approved by parliament. A 2023 article by the New Statesman stated that only a few dozen pieces had actually been returned to their rightful owners including; a sword known as the El Hadj Omar Tall (on ‘permanent loan’ to Senegal), Ranavalona III’s crown (on loan to Madagascar since 2020) and 26 artefacts from the Royal Palaces of Abomey (returned to Benin in 2021) [Vock]. One treasure which awaits parliamentary approval for release is a drum called Djidji Ayokwe (also known as the “talking drum”) which was seized from Côte d'Ivoire in 1916. The drum is just one item out of a list of 148 which Côte d'Ivoire hope to retrieve from the French republic [Africanews].
Meanwhile, in the UK attitudes towards the permanent return of artefacts to African nations are no less fraught. In 2019 the-then British Museum director, Hartwig Fischer sparked controversy when he defended the museum’s refusal to return to Greece the Parthenon marbles, describing the theft as “a creative act” [Brown]. His comments adding fuel to the fire of those in support of the ‘universal museum’ model. Perhaps in response, a self-penned article was published the same year for Modern Ghana magazine by former legal adviser to the UN in Vienna, Dr Kwame Opoku in which he laid into those critical of the process of restitution, “monstrous and voracious institutions, such as the British Museum, holding 13 million objects, mostly looted, cannot deceive us by pretending they hold them on behalf of humanity”. Opoku continued “they are only 'universal' in the sense that they hold looted artefacts from the whole world.” But one of the biggest blows, possibly a step backwards, has come from the UK government who have announced plans in 2024 to exclude national museums from autonomy over which items are returned. The Charities Act 2022 allowed for museum bosses to arrange the repatriation of artefacts on moral grounds following consultations with the Charity Commission, however an amendment to the act is set to be written into law later this year [Adams]. Claiming that the government were not made aware of the implications of such freedom Lord Parkinson wrote to the Commission stating that "the policy of HM Government is that national museums and galleries should continue to be bound by their governing legislation, precluding them from resolving to restitute objects from their collections other than in the limited and specific circumstances expressly provided for in legislation. To that end, we will specifically exclude those national museums and galleries from the commencement of sections 15 and 16 of the act."
In Germany, several high-profile cases have resulted in the return of some of their colonial-era artefacts; in 2022, Foreign Minister Annalena Baerbock travelled to Nigeria where she handed over 22 Benin Bronzes to their rightful owner. The ceremony, in the capital Abuja, was seen as a significant move towards restoring some of the country's most important pieces, but there still remains over 1100 on German soil [Mbonu-Amadi]. Crafted between the 15th and 19th Centuries around 5000 Benin Bronzes (a term that refers to metal sculptures, statues, carvings, weapons, tusks and plaques) were forcibly removed from the-then kingdom of Benin by British soldiers in 1897, some were later bought by Germany. This would be the first time a successful deal would be made between the two nations (or indeed between any European keepers of Nigerian treasures), previous pleas had gone ignored. During her visit Baerbock acknowledged this as well as Germany’s role in the heritage-theft machine admitting that "Officials from my country once bought the bronzes, knowing they had been robbed and stolen" [BBC].
NOISES FROM THE CARIBBEAN
Throughout the writing of this paper I have found very little information regarding the repatriation of artefacts to former colonies in the West Indies, the bulk of statistics published focusing on developments in Africa, Greece and India. The Sarr-Savoy report falls short of examining the full extent of colonial-era heritage theft by virtue of focusing on Africa alone, but there are noises coming out of the Caribbean. In 2019 the Jamaican culture minister, Olivia Grange waged a big to reunite objects stolen from the island during its colonial era citing them as "significant to the story of Jamaica". Amongst these were a wooden figure of Boinayel (thought to be a rain god, circa 1256) and a bird-man spirit (circa 1029), also made from wood. Both items were removed from a cave during an archaeological dig in Vere parish, now known as Clarendon. The figures, once property of art collector and dealer William Ockleford Oldman and now residing at the British Museum, have travelled the globe featuring in numerous traveling exhibitions yet neither have set foot in the Caribbean since their departure in 1792. Currently, both carvings remain hidden from view, excluded from the museum's permanent collection. The importance of the figures to the indigenous Taino people and their descendants cannot be overstated, as a result of the Taino people's encounter with the Europeans there remains little of their historical identity.
The islands that form CARICOM [1] have all staked claims for reparations yet there has been little in the means of progress to celebrate within the region [Lowry, p325]. The British Museum claims they have yet to receive a formal request from Jamaica for the return of Boinayel and the bird-man-spirit, one argument is that there isn't enough proof that the carvings were acquired illegitimately however, it's a stretch of the imagination to suggest that given their spiritual significance they were simply handed over as gifts. For the time being, the British museum continues to hold onto many pieces from the Caribbean within its collections. There also remains a great void of information regarding the true scale of stolen artefacts from the island; a video by online resource ‘Impacting Jamaica’ referenced one artefact looted by the British during the 1760 revolt led by Takyi (commonly known as Tacky), the Tacky Rebellion Bible. In writing this paper extensive searches have yielded no results relating to the item and I have written to Impacting Jamaica regarding details of the Bible, or links to resources used in the making of their video. In the absence of this information it would be unfair for me to elaborate further on the documents existence.
In the United States, there have been requests from the Cuban Foundation for Nature and Humanity for the return of the Idol of Patana, a carving which was removed from a ceremonial cave located on the east coast of Cuba in a village named Patana. The idol was found by sheer luck in 1915 by archaeologist Mark Harrington and is believed to have looked out over the open ocean for some 500 years until its violent removal and transportation to New York at the request of the collector George Gustav Heye. It has been documented that the head of the idol was severed from it base before shipping, the base itself being cut into manageable sections to ease handling. Little consideration was given to the local Taino people for the spiritual significance of the carving and its location; the Tainos believing that the idol represents Boinayel the "bringer of rains" and the cave where it was located is known locally as "Cueva del Agua" (cave of the water) or "Cueva del Cemi" (the deity’s cave). Today the Idol remains part of the Smithsonian’s hoard, located at their National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI) in New York with no immediate plans for its repatriation.
A GLIMMER OF HOPE
In the Netherlands the Wereldmuseum, formed of three sites (Amsterdam, Rotterdam and Leiden) took pride in being “one of the first museums in Europe to develop mechanisms for repatriating artefacts looted from former colonies” [Hickley]. Encouraged by researcher Jos van Beurden’s thesis published in 2016, the museum (known then as the Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, or NMVW) set about drafting its response to the debate over the repatriation of colonial-era artefacts. A set of guidelines were published which not only suggested that stolen heritage should be returned regardless of how they were obtained, but expressed that the receiving country’s ability to safeguard the items should not be part of the decision making process [Hickley]. Chief curator Henrietta Lidchi revealed that the NMVW was in possession of approximately 180’000 items acquired as a result of the country’s colonial past [Hickley], a similar number held by Belgium’s Royal Museum for Central Africa [Franceinfo Culture]. Mindful of the gravity of the task ahead the museum introduced measures making the process “more systematic and equitable” including the appointment of two provenance researchers in 2019 to help speed up operations. [Hickley]
CONCLUSIONS
In conducting my research for this paper it became increasingly evident that there remains a lot of work to be done in the name of restitution. The 2018 Savoy-Sarr report may have provided a blueprint for progress however it was met with great resistance from museum heads desperate to hold onto their collections. In most cases the governments have supported this resistance, citing weak links in the receiving countries infrastructure as an excuse to rebuff restitution attempts. I argue that in cases where victims of colonialism are unable to put the “appropriate” safeguards in place they should be assisted to do so; new museums equipped with the technology required to preserve valuable and delicate items should be funded (in part at least) by the nation who ruled over them, this could be seen as a form of reparation. Ex-colonies could be given the option to loan items to museums across the globe instead of the current situation (supported by the ex-head of the Musée du Quai Branly-Jacques Chirac) which sees the true owner borrowing artworks and culturally important specimens from the people who removed them.
There was a disheartening lack of reliable information relating to restitution in the Caribbean region, much of the information surrounding artefacts removed during the height of colonialism could not be verified. Although I have avoided discussing these items in this paper it has to be recognised that much of the history of the enslaved has been erased, or not documented, so I struggle to dismiss the claims entirely. A Sarr-Savoy-style report could serve as a means of determining the scale of loss from the region. We have to remember that the items removed from Caribbean and African soil hold significant importance to the communities they belong to, the impact on cultural identity, historical understanding, and economic development cannot be ignored.
FOOTNOTES
[1] The Caribbean Community, including Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago.
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